Ch 4: Theories on development

• Psychoanalytic approaches 
• Psychodynamic approaches
• Social learning theory
• Cognitive developmental theory
• Gender schema theory
• Gender Dysphoria
• Chapter reflection: Modern gender roles
• Chapter application:   Explaining bullying behavior

• Explain the main concepts of Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic approaches to gender identity and behavior (e.g., Freud’s Oedipus complex, unconscious motives).
• Describe Social Learning Theory and how modeling, reinforcement, and punishment shape gender roles.
• Summarize Cognitive Developmental Theory, focusing on how children actively construct gender understanding over time.
• Define Gender Schema Theory and its role in organizing information related to gender and guiding behavior.
• Define Gender Dysphoria and distinguish it from general experiences of gender diversity.

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approaches

As with much of the origin of psychology, the psychoanalysts, lead by Sigmund Freud, attempted to describe one's gender identity as the result of competing impulses deriving from our unconscious mind.  Freud, and any others who followed closely with his perspective, were referred to as psychoanalysts.  Freud's major contribution to gender identity development was his belief that we progress through five stages of development, starting at birth and up through our adolescent years.  

With these criticisms in mind, not everyone was keen to follow Freud's theories and perspectives exactly as he proscribed.  Many extended the framework of how our unconscious mind influences our overall development, but addressed the key criticisms of many of Freud's specific theories.  As such, those individuals who believed in the unconscious but took a different approach from Freud were referred to as psychodynamicists.

In particular, there are three psychodynamicists who contributed quite a bit to the area of gender identity development:  Karen Horney, Nancy Chodorow, and Ellyn Kaschak.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theories are based on the assumption that "gendered" development is the result of social factors.  These theories, as applied to gender, are largely based on Albert Bandura's social learning theories more generally. An interesting component to social learning theory is that, if our environment changes, then the social factors that influence our development can also change. 

Cognitive Developmental Theory

In the 1960s, Harvard professor Lawrence Kohlberg developed a cognitive theory of gender development that suggest that a child's understanding of gender develops with age through three stages of development:  gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy. 

Gender Schema Theory

As an extension of cognitive theories of gender development, in the 1980s American psychologist Sandra Bem proposed the gender schema theory which asserts that children learn about male and female roles from the culture in which they live.

Gender Dysphoria

As explained by the American Psychiatric Association, gender dysphoria "involves a conflict between a person's physical or assigned gender and the gender with which he/she/they identify. People with gender dysphoria may be very uncomfortable with the gender they were assigned, sometimes described as being uncomfortable with their body (particularly developments during puberty) or being uncomfortable with the expected roles of their assigned gender." 

Main Take-Aways

• Freud posited in his psychoanalytic theory that gender develops from our successful or unsuccessful resolution of conflicts during our psychosexual stages of development, particularly in the phallic stage where boys experience the Oedipus complex and girls experience the Electra complex.
• Whereas psychoanalytic theories of gender development relied on resolving unconscious conflicts, social theories of gender development rely on the conscious social factors that influence an individual's gender identity.
• Social learning theories are based on the assumption that "gendered" development is the result of social factors.
• Cognitive theories suggest that our understanding of gender increases in complexity as we age.
• Gender schema theory asserts that children learn about male and female roles from the culture in which they live.
• Individuals who identify as something other than the biological sex they were assigned at birth may be experiencing gender dysphoria.

Purpose:  This activity helps students understand how societal norms influence the development of gender schemas and how these schemas affect perceptions and behaviors.  It is intended to explore and analyze common gender stereotypes, understand their origins, and discuss their impact on individual behavior and societal expectations.

Materials Needed:

• Large sheets of paper or whiteboards
• Markers
• Sticky notes

Steps:

Step 1:  Introduction (10 minutes):

• Begin with a brief overview of Gender Schema Theory, explaining that it describes how individuals internalize societal gender norms, which then guide their perceptions and behaviors.

Step 2:  Brainstorming Session (15 minutes):

• Divide the class into small groups.
• Assign each group a large sheet of paper or a section of the whiteboard.
• Ask each group to write "Male" on one side and "Female" on the other.
• Instruct the groups to list as many stereotypes or societal expectations associated with each gender as they can think of.

Step 3:  Group Discussion (15 minutes):

• Once the lists are complete, have each group present their stereotypes to the class.
• Encourage students to discuss the origins of these stereotypes and how they might influence individual behavior and societal expectations.

Step 4:  Personal Reflection (10 minutes):

• Provide students with sticky notes and ask them to write down instances where they felt pressured to conform to a gender stereotype or witnessed someone else experiencing such pressure.
• Collect the sticky notes and read a few aloud (anonymously) to highlight common experiences.

Step 5:  Class Discussion (10 minutes):

• Facilitate a discussion on how these stereotypes form the basis of gender schemas and influence behavior.
• Discuss ways to challenge and change negative or limiting gender schemas in society.

Purpose:  The goal of this activity is to engage students in understanding the Oedipus Complex and critically examine its gendered assumptions, cultural context, and relevance (or lack thereof) in modern theories of identity and development.  It is intended to help students understand the basic tenets of the Oedipus Comple, critically evaluate gendered and cultural assumptions in the classical theories, and to develop skills in collaborative analysis and creative academic expression.

Part 1: Quick Intro Recap (5–10 minutes)

Briefly review Freud’s theory:

• Oedipus Complex: A psychosexual stage where boys develop unconscious desire for their mother and rivalry with their father.
• Electra Complex (Freud’s later followers): Proposed for girls, involving “penis envy” and desire for the father.

Note:  Include Freud’s context—early 1900s, Western, male-dominated psychology—and limitations.

Part 2: Small Group Roleplay & Rewrite (20–25 minutes)

Instructions:

Step 1: Divide students into small groups (3–5 people).

Step 2:  Assign each group a role or angle to “rewrite” or respond to the Oedipus Complex from a modern or alternative perspective. Examples:

• Queer Theory: How does Freud’s model ignore non-heteronormative development?
• Feminist Critique: How does the Electra Complex reflect patriarchal assumptions?
• Cross-Cultural Lens: Would the Oedipus Complex apply in non-Western family structures?
• Contemporary Psychology: How do attachment theory or modern developmental theories differ?
• The Mother’s Voice: How would the theory change if the mother’s perspective were central?

Step 3:  Each group creates a short 2–3 minute roleplay, skit, or monologue demonstrating their critique or rewrite (e.g., a therapy session, a conversation between Freud and a modern theorist, a satire of a Victorian family, etc.).

Part 3: Presentations & Discussion (20–30 minutes)

Each group presents their scene. After each, the class discusses:

• What assumptions were challenged?
• How did this new lens change the meaning or relevance of the theory?
• Is the Oedipus Complex still useful or obsolete?

Identify the main contributions of each of the psychoanalytic gender researchers

• How did Sigmund Freud's theories, such as the Oedipus complex and penis envy, influence early understandings of gender identity development?
• In what ways did Karen Horney challenge Freud's views on female psychology, and what alternative perspectives did she offer?
• How did Nancy Chodorow's work on the reproduction of mothering contribute to contemporary psychoanalytic theories of gender?
• How have contemporary psychoanalytic theorists built upon or diverged from classical theories to address modern understandings of gender fluidity and non-binary identities?

Identify and explain several social theories of gender identity development (social learning, cognitive developmental, and gender schema) as well as the concept of gender dysphoria

• How does Social Learning Theory explain the acquisition of gender roles through mechanisms like imitation and reinforcement?
• According to Cognitive Developmental Theory, what are the stages children go through in understanding their gender identity, and how do these stages influence their behavior?
• What is Gender Schema Theory, and how does it propose that individuals organize and interpret gender-related information?
• How do these social theories account for variations in gender identity development across different cultures and societies?
• What is gender dysphoria, and how do current psychological theories explain its development in some individuals?
• How can understanding these theories inform approaches to supporting individuals experiencing gender dysphoria?

Assignment Overview:

In this 4–5 page essay, you will define and analyze the concept of gender dysphoria in both clinical and social contexts. You will compare it with broader experiences of gender diversity, considering how medical, psychological, and cultural frameworks shape how we understand gender identity and expression.

Assignment Prompt:

Part I: Defining Gender Dysphoria (1.5–2 pages)

• Provide a clear definition of gender dysphoria, using the DSM-5 or relevant medical/psychological sources.
• Describe the key features or diagnostic criteria.
• Discuss how Gender Dysphoria has historically been understood and how that understanding has evolved.

Part II: Distinguishing Gender Dysphoria from Gender Diversity (2–2.5 pages)

• Define gender diversity and explain the variety of gender experiences that do not involve distress or dysphoria.
• Analyze why it is important not to conflate gender diversity with pathology.
• Discuss the social, cultural, or institutional impacts of misinterpreting or medicalizing gender diversity.
• Optionally, reflect on current debates (e.g., access to gender-affirming care, medical gatekeeping, nonbinary inclusion in healthcare systems).

Criteria