Chapter 1: Contextualizing gender

Whether we realize it or not, gender affects each of us from the moment we are born and throughout our lives.  In this text we will learn about the history of the study of the psychology of gender, the difference between sex and gender, how gender stereotypes are formed and maintained, how gender influences thoughts and behaviors, and why gender issues will always continue to be at the forefront of social issues.  

Many of the concepts and ideas that will be discussed throughout this textbook will primarily be addressed utilizing common social conceptions which, although they may or may not be accurate, are shared by members of a community.  For readers who have not yet taken a ‘deep dive’ into gender, this hopefully will serve as a starting place to first connect with familiar (or even stereotypical) concepts with which most individuals are aware before critically examining the extent to which those concepts are supported or contradicted by relevant research and coming to a deeper understanding of the reality of how the concepts of gender affect our lives, the lives of others, and society as a whole.

For readers who are already familiar with how gender and gendered identities have a pervasive influence on many interconnected aspects of our social existence, this text will also hopefully provide the appropriate context by which such misconceptions and misapplications of gender and gender-related concepts, particularly as they differ from sex differences, sexuality, etc., have permeated the overall manner in which individuals and society as a whole view these concepts, and how they should instead be conceptualized and effected.

Although many references will be made to specific types of research methodologies and statistical analyses associated with the study of the psychology of gender, it is not necessary to have a mastery of understanding of these concepts.  Pertinent aspects of each will be discussed in terms that are easily approachable (with the explicit understanding that extremely technical aspects of both may necessarily be qualified in higher-level courses).

Gender plays a significant role in shaping our identity. It influences our understanding of ourselves and our place in the world.  From a young age, children are taught gender norms and expectations through messages from family, peers, media, and other cultural sources. This socialization process helps shape our understanding of what it means to be male or female.  Our understanding of our own gender influences our self-perception and self-esteem. For example, a person who identifies as male or female may have a strong sense of their own masculinity or femininity, which shapes their self-image.

Gender affects the relationships we have with others. For example, gender can influence the ways in which we interact with and relate to others, as well as the types of relationships we form.  Gender affects the roles and expectations placed upon individuals in society. For example, traditional gender norms often expect men to be providers and women to be caretakers, which can shape the opportunities and experiences available to individuals.

As such, gender can have a significant impact on individuals’ experiences and opportunities in their everyday life. Gender roles and expectations can shape how individuals are socialized and interact with others, affecting their relationships, communication styles, and behaviors.  Gender can impact job opportunities, salaries, and the type of work individuals are expected to do.

There can be gender-based differences in health concerns, access to medical care, and the type of treatments available.  There can be gender-based disparities in education, with some groups facing barriers to accessing and succeeding in school.  The representation of gender in media, politics, and other areas of public life can shape societal norms and expectations.

The most fundamental concept to address before anything else is that there is an important and meaningful difference between the terms “sex” and “gender”.  Whereas most often individuals use these terms interchangeably, there is a clear distinction between the two.  In the same way that race and ethnicity are different, so too are the terms sex and gender.

To begin, when most individuals think about the differences between, for example, men and women, they are most often thinking about how males and females differ from one another in terms of physical characteristics, functional abilities, intelligence, social attitudes, etc.  The distinction thus being made is that males and females are somehow different from one another, that these differences are concrete, and that there must be something responsible for these immutable differences.

Perhaps the most common understanding of what is responsible for these differences is simply that we are born either male or female, and there is not anything that we can do to change that.   In other words, from the moment of our birth, we are placed into a particular category as a function of our biological make-up, such as by what combination of chromosomes we inherited from our parents, and just as that combination is beyond our control, the differences between men and women which result are similarly beyond our control.

As most people are perhaps familiar with the notion of one’s “sex as determined by birth”, it’s not necessary at this point in the discussion to explore the varying definitions of sex.  In this context, suffice it to say that sex relates to the determination of one’s identity as a function of biology, typically either male or female (although these are not exhaustive categories).

As will be explored further in this text, traditionally the determination of one’s sex is based on the appearances of one’s external genitalia at birth:  an infant with a penis is a boy; an infant with a vagina is a girl.  Due to biological variability, however, even determining biological sex as a function of external appearances can be problematic. Genetically, one could attempt to ascertain an infant’s sex as a function of what pair of sex chromosomes is present:  an infant with two X chromosomes (XX) is female; an infant with an X and a Y chromosome (XY) is male.  Although this is true for most people, it is not true for all people.  In other words, a female can be born XY; a male can be born XX.   Just as there is biological variability as it relates to physical appearances, there is also genetic variability in which an individual can be born as neither XX nor XY.

Regardless, whereas it is now possible to surgically alter the appearances of an individual, it is still not possible to alter the sex chromosomes of an infant after birth.  Regardless an individuals’ later gender identification, one’s biological sex will remain a constant throughout one’s life.  Beyond the question of what biological ‘sex’ an individual is, is how that person identifies over the course of a lifespan.   This is where the transition to ‘gender’ comes into play.

Defining gender, however, is not as straightforward.  Indeed, we can find many different definitions of gender throughout the literature:

• “The term gender refers to the meanings that societies and individuals ascribe to female and male categories.” (Wood & Eagly, 2002, p. 699)
• “Gender refers to the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being women and men.  The social definitions of what it means to be a woman or man vary among cultures and change over time.  Gender is a sociocultural expression of particular characteristics and roles that are associated with certain groups of people with reference to their sex and sexuality.” (Jhpiego, n.d.)
• “A reference to the various femininities and masculinities that characterize particular societies and subcultures” (Galliano, 2002).
• “Gender: Culturally and socially constructed roles, responsibilities, privileges, relations and expectations of women, men, boys and girls.” (Gender concepts, 2022)

As such, in this text these terms will be defined as the following:

Sex: a determination of one’s identity as a function of biology.

Gender:  a determination of one’s identity as a function of individual and social factors.

The second main concept is to understand the differences in the research and philosophical approaches that those interested in studying gender bring with them to this area.  In particular, there are two main differences that you will continually run across as you continue to read more about gender studies issues:  the maximalist/minimalist approach and the essentialist/social construction perspectives.

Much of the history of the study of the psychology of gender has coincided with the broader development of the field of psychology as a whole.  For example, in terms of socialization, psychology examines the ways in which gender roles and expectations are learned and internalized through socialization processes.  The development of a gender identity is an important aspect of an individual's psychological development.  Gender can influence behavior and attitudes, which are key areas of study in psychology.

Psychological research has also shown that gender can impact mental health, with women and gender minority groups being at increased risk for certain mental health issues.  Gender biases and stereotypes can shape the way individuals perceive and interact with others, which is an important area of study in social and cognitive psychology.  Overall, the study of gender and psychology are interrelated and complement each other, providing a more complete understanding of how gender impacts individuals and society as a whole.

Indeed, around the time that the ‘founders’ of modern psychology were first getting started, much of science in general was heavily influenced by the revolutionary theory of Charles Darwin and his concept of the evolution of a species.

Although this obviously contradicted the prevailing notion that organisms have remained unchanged from the moment they first appeared on the planet, Darwin’s theory was compelling.  Understandably, although Darwin himself hesitated to apply his theory of how ‘lower’ animals change and adapt over time, an immediate connection was made between his theories of changes in mammals in general and in humans specifically.

Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, also known as the theory of natural selection, proposes that species evolve over time through a process of natural selection. According to the theory, within a population, individuals possess variations in traits that are passed down from one generation to the next.  Species will often produce more offspring than can survive, leading to a struggle for existence.  Individuals with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits on to their offspring.  Over time, the accumulation of these advantageous traits leads to the evolution of new species through a process known as descent with modification.

Darwin's theory of evolution challenged traditional views about the origin of species and provided a scientific explanation for the diversity of life on Earth. It remains one of the most significant scientific theories in the history of biology and continues to be a major focus of research and discovery.

While still recognizing that small, incremental changes in one’s biological make-up was possible over extremely long periods of time, the theory of evoluation still reinforced the idea that a particular organism’s biological make-up at birth had tremendous implications for its ability to live and thrive in its environment.  As related to humans, whether a child was born as male or female therefore had an equally profound and life-long-lasting impact on one’s ability to negotiate with the world around him or her.

In general, researchers and philosophers who operated from this perspective were reflective of what is called the maximalistic perspective.   The maximalistic perspective states that the differences between men and women are large and, because they are based on genetics, these differences are difficult if not impossible to change.

From a purely scientific viewpoint, it is important to first establish a theory (a general idea about something in the world around us) so that from that theory we can derive an hypothesis (a specific way of testing whether that idea is supported or not) to determine whether or not our overall understanding of a situation is valid.

The implication of operating from the maximalistic perspective is that, in those instances where differences between men and women are observed, the underlying premise is that there is a biological explanation for such differences.   As previously discussed, we largely are incapable of changing our biological make-up in the immediacy; therefore, nothing can be done to alter the extent to which these differences exist between men and women.

The maximalist perspective in the psychology of gender holds that there are significant innate differences between men and women, while the minimalist perspective holds that there are few, if any, innate differences between men and women, and that any observed differences are largely the result of socialization and cultural factors. In other words, maximalists believe that men and women are inherently different in many ways, while minimalists believe that men and women are largely the same and any differences are largely the result of how society raises them.

The maximalist perspective in the psychology of gender argues that men and women have distinct cognitive, emotional and behavioral characteristics that are largely determined by biology. This perspective suggests that there are innate differences in the way men and women think, feel and behave, and that these differences are influenced by hormones and the brain. The maximalist perspective also suggests that men and women have different abilities and preferences, and that they are naturally suited to different roles in society.

On the other hand, the minimalist perspective in the psychology of gender argues that any differences between men and women are primarily the result of socialization and cultural factors. This perspective suggests that any observed differences in cognitive, emotional and behavioral characteristics between men and women are largely the result of societal expectations and cultural norms. The minimalist perspective also suggests that any differences in abilities and preferences between men and women can be attributed to cultural and environmental factors, rather than biology.

Most research in psychology and neuroscience suggest that the reality is somewhere in the middle, that is, there are some innate differences between men and women but these differences are not absolute and many of them are small. Also, a lot of the differences that we observe between men and women are the result of a complex interplay between biology and environment, rather than one or the other.

Curiously, both maximalist and minimalist perspectives have been criticized for oversimplifying the complexities of gender and for overlooking the nuances and variations that exist within each group. For example, the maximalist perspective has been criticized for overemphasizing the role of biology in shaping gender and for overlooking the influence of culture and environment. Similarly, the minimalist perspective has been criticized for underestimating the role of biology in shaping gender and for ignoring the fact that there are some innate differences between men and women.

Research in psychology and neuroscience suggests that the truth is likely more complex than either perspective allows for. There is evidence that biology plays a role in shaping gender, but it is not the only factor and is not even the most important one. There are also environmental and cultural factors that shape gender and how it is expressed.  Gender is a multifaceted construct that includes not only biological sex, but also gender identity, gender expression, and gender roles, and these dimensions can interact in complex ways.

In summary, the maximalist and minimalist perspectives in the psychology of gender are broad generalizations that can be useful in understanding some aspects of gender, but they do not fully capture the complexity and nuances of gender. The most recent research suggests that gender is a complex and multidimensional construct that is influenced by a combination of biological, environmental, and cultural factors.

Tied in directly to the evolutionary perspective, changes in biology are possible, but over extremely long periods of times (certainly not in one individual’s lifetime, or multiple individuals’ lifetimes, but over hundreds of thousands of generations of individuals).  As such, any difference observed between men and women today should be expected to continue to exist conceivably well into the foreseeable future and beyond.   Another term often used to describe this perspective is the essentialist perspective.  The further implication is that we as individuals, and societies as a whole, should expect these differences to exist essentially in perpetuity.

During the timeframe (the late 19th century) in which early research into both biological and psychological differences between men and women were being conducted, these differences were commonly observed and accepted by society.  However consistent and seemingly correct the application of the essentialist perspective was to the observable differences between men and women in society over a century ago, over time these differences became quite inconsistent.  According to the essentialist perspective, such change should not be possible.  As such, researcher then turned to other factors which might be responsible for explaining the changing roles of men and women over time.

Whereas biology hasn’t changed; society has.  While still acknowledging that there are some immutable biological differences between men and women, later researchers were more interested in exploring how social factors may be quite influential in explaining the changes in observable behaviors between men and women according to a biosocial perspective.

In general, researchers and philosophers who operated from this perspective were reflective of what is called the minimalistic perspective.   The minimalistic perspective states that the differences between men and women are small and, because they are based on individual and societal factors, these differences should be expected to change as individuals and societies change.  This is also referred to as the constructionist perspective.

The essentialist perspective in the study of gender suggests that there are inherent and unchanging differences between men and women that are determined by biology. This perspective argues that men and women have distinct and natural roles in society that are determined by their biological differences. This perspective often emphasizes the role of hormones and other biological factors in shaping gender and gender roles.

On the other hand, the biosocial perspective in the study of gender argues that both biology and socialization play important roles in shaping gender and gender roles. This perspective suggests that biology provides the foundation for gender but that socialization and cultural factors also play a significant role in shaping how gender is expressed and experienced. This perspective emphasizes the interplay between biology and environment in shaping gender and gender roles, and it suggests that gender is not fixed, but it is rather a dynamic and constantly changing construct that is shaped by both biology and culture.

In other words, the essentialist perspective emphasizes the role of biology in shaping gender, while the biosocial perspective emphasizes the role of both biology and culture in shaping gender. The essentialist perspective tends to view gender as fixed and natural, while the biosocial perspective views gender as a dynamic and constantly changing construct that is shaped by both biology and culture.

The essentialist perspective, as it relates to the study of gender, tends to emphasize the role of biology in shaping gender, and often suggests that there are innate and unchanging differences between men and women. This perspective can be seen in some traditional views of gender roles and gender stereotypes, which propose that men are naturally assertive and dominant, while women are naturally nurturing and submissive. This perspective also tends to view gender identity as a fixed and unchanging trait that is determined by one's biology, and it can lead to the belief that individuals should conform to the gender roles that are associated with their biological sex.

On the other hand, the biosocial perspective in the study of gender emphasizes the role of both biology and culture in shaping gender. This perspective suggests that biology provides the foundation for gender, but that socialization and cultural factors also play a significant role in shaping how gender is expressed and experienced. This perspective suggests that gender is not fixed, but it is rather a dynamic and constantly changing construct that is shaped by both biology and culture. The biosocial perspective also tends to view gender identity as a complex and multidimensional construct that can be influenced by both biology and socialization, and it recognizes that individuals have different ways of expressing their gender identity.

In general, the biosocial perspective tends to be more in line with current scientific understanding of gender and its development. Research in fields such as psychology, sociology, and neuroscience suggest that gender is a complex and multidimensional construct that is shaped by a combination of biological, environmental, and cultural factors. Additionally, research also suggests that gender identity and gender roles are not fixed and unchanging, but they are rather dynamic and constantly changing constructs.

The third main concept is that there are actually myriad concepts of gender, certainly more concepts that could conceivably be effectively discussed in just one textbook.  Pilcher and Whelehan (2004), for example, discuss gender concepts including androcentrism, equality, identity politics, power, representation, and standpoint.  Evans and Williams (2012) also include agency, diaspora, performativity, reflexivity, and subjectivity.

Androcentrism is a term used to describe a cultural bias in which male perspectives and experiences are prioritized and considered the norm. This means that cultural, social, and political institutions are constructed and organized around the assumption that men are the default and women are deviant or secondary. In androcentric societies, male norms, values, and experiences are used as the standard by which other genders are measured, and male perspectives and experiences are seen as more valid and important than those of other genders.  Androcentrism has far-reaching consequences, including shaping the ways in which gender roles are defined and reinforced, perpetuating gender-based inequalities, and limiting the experiences and perspectives of individuals who do not conform to male norms. 

Gender and identity politics are closely related concepts that intersect and influence one another. Identity politics refers to a political approach that prioritizes the experiences, perspectives, and needs of specific social groups based on their shared identity. Gender is a key aspect of identity politics, as individuals' experiences with gender can shape their experiences of oppression and marginalization, as well as their political perspectives and activism.

For example, feminist movements prioritize the experiences of women and seek to challenge and change patriarchal systems that perpetuate gender-based inequalities. Similarly, LGBTQ+ activism seeks to challenge and change heteronormative and homophobic systems that perpetuate inequalities based on sexual orientation and gender identity.  In this way, identity politics is used to mobilize and organize individuals who share a particular identity, including gender, to work towards achieving greater equality and social justice. By prioritizing the experiences and perspectives of individuals based on their shared identity, identity politics can help to amplify marginalized voices and bring attention to important social issues.

Standpoint refers to the concept that one's perspective and experiences are shaped by their social location and experiences of oppression or privilege. This means that individuals from different social groups have different experiences and perspectives on the world, and that these experiences and perspectives are valuable and worthy of consideration.

Gender is a key aspect of social location and is closely related to standpoint. Gender can shape an individual's experiences of oppression and privilege and can influence their perspectives and experiences of the world. For example, women and other gender minorities may experience gender-based oppression and discrimination, which can shape their experiences and perspectives in ways that are different from those of men.  

In this way, standpoint theory highlights the importance of considering the experiences and perspectives of individuals from marginalized and underrepresented groups, including those based on gender. By recognizing and valuing the experiences and perspectives of individuals based on their gender and other aspects of their social location, we can work towards creating a more inclusive and equitable society for all individuals.

Agency refers to the capacity of individuals to act, make decisions, and shape their own lives and the world around them. Gender and agency are closely related in that gender can shape individuals' experiences of agency and their ability to act and make decisions in their own lives.

For example, women and other gender minorities may experience gender-based oppression and discrimination, which can limit their experiences of agency and their ability to shape their own lives and the world around them. Patriarchy, for instance, restricts women's agency by imposing gender-based expectations and limitations on their behavior, opportunities, and experiences.

On the other hand, gender can also shape experiences of agency in positive ways. For example, individuals who embrace and assert their gender identity can experience greater agency and a greater sense of empowerment and self-determination.  By recognizing and challenging gender-based barriers to agency, and by supporting and empowering individuals to assert their gender identity and experiences, we can work towards creating a more inclusive and equitable society for all individuals, regardless of gender.

In the field of psychology, Simone de Beauvoir and Betty Friedan were among the first to challenge traditional gender roles and expectations by advocating for a more nuanced understanding of gender and sexuality. Their work focused on highlighting the social, cultural, and historical construction of gender, rather than seeing it as a fixed, biological category. Simone de Beauvoir's famous work, "The Second Sex," argued that women were not biologically determined to be inferior to men but were rather socially and culturally constructed as such. Similarly, Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" challenged the traditional expectations and roles imposed on women, arguing that they could and should be able to pursue careers, education, and other forms of personal fulfillment. These early works were influential in the development of feminist and gender studies and paved the way for a more nuanced understanding of gender and sexuality in psychology and beyond.

De Beauvoir and Friedan's works were some of the first to question the dominant cultural beliefs and expectations around gender roles, particularly for women. They argued that gender is not determined by biology, but is instead shaped by social, cultural, and historical factors. This perspective challenged traditional views that women were inherently inferior to men and had predetermined roles as homemakers, mothers, and caretakers.

De Beauvoir's book "The Second Sex" was groundbreaking in its argument that women were not born to be subordinate to men, but rather were made into "the other" through societal and cultural norms and expectations. She argued that women's oppression and subordination were not a result of their biology, but of the patriarchal society in which they lived.

Similarly, Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" criticized the cultural ideal of the 1950s and 1960s that saw women as content and fulfilled only in their roles as homemakers and mothers. Friedan called for a reevaluation of these gender roles and expectations, arguing that women should have the opportunity to pursue their own careers, education, and other forms of personal fulfillment.

These early works had a significant impact on the development of feminist and gender studies and paved the way for a more nuanced understanding of gender and sexuality in psychology and beyond. Today, these perspectives continue to influence discussions around gender, including topics such as gender identity, gender expression, and gender equality.

"Pensive young transgender guy with red lips looking at camera" by Anna is in the Public Domain, CC0

We are all familiar with the notion of being asked a question on a survey whether we are ‘male’ or ‘female’.   What about individuals who do not identify strictly as one or the other?  These include individuals who refer to themselves as gender non-binary, gender-fluid, gender non-conforming, etc.  To further complicate issues associated with the difference between the terms sex and gender, a lot of the initial research into what is now referred to as gender research was at the time referred to as sex research.  Many of the terms that will be discussed throughout this textbook will use ‘sex’ when really gender is being addressed, and ‘gender’ when really sex is being addressed.  Although these terms should arguably be updated to reflect our modern understanding of the distinction between the two, they appear in so many decades of published research that it would potentially become very confusing if the terms were switched today.  As such, regardless which term is being used, it will be important to understand whether such terms are truly referring to either sex or gender.

Overall, the complexity of gender identity arises from the interplay of individual and societal factors that shape our understanding of ourselves and our place in the world.   It involves a range of individual and societal factors that shape our understanding of ourselves and our place in the world.  The notion of gender fluidity, for example, reminds us that gender identity is not always binary or fixed. For many individuals, gender identity can evolve and change over time and can encompass a range of gender expressions and experiences.

There is also a tremendous amount of intersectionality between gender and other factors including race, ethnicity, culture, sexual orientation, and more. These intersections of identity can shape the ways in which individuals experience and understand their own gender.  Gender identity is also shaped by societal norms and expectations. These norms and expectations can vary greatly between cultures and over time and can impact the ways in which individuals understand and express their gender.

While gender identity is largely a social and cultural construct, biology can also play a role in shaping gender identity. For example, individuals with intersex conditions may have complex experiences with gender identity that challenge traditional binary norms.

Individual personal experiences, including childhood experiences, family relationships, and life events can further shape an individual's understanding of their gender identity.

Studying gender is important for several reasons.  For one, it allows us to achieve a better understanding of social and cultural norms.   Gender is, after all, a social and cultural construct, and studying gender helps us understand the norms, expectations, and values associated with being male or female in a given society.   It also allows us to improve gender equality.  The more we learn about gender helps us understand the ways in which gender affects power dynamics and opportunities and can inform efforts to promote gender equality and challenge gender-based discrimination.

Having a greater knowledge base of gender also helps us to explore our identity.  Gender plays a key role in shaping our sense of self, and studying gender helps us understand the complexities and nuances of gender identity including how it is constructed and performed.  It also allows us to examine potential health disparities.  Gender affects health outcomes, and studying gender can help identify and address health disparities between men and women.

Finally, continuing research of the effect of gender in our society allows us to advance the field of study in general.  Studying gender is interdisciplinary and draws from fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, and more. By studying gender, we can contribute to a deeper and more nuanced understanding of human behavior and relationships.   Overall, studying gender is important for a better understanding of the social and cultural influences on our lives and for promoting equality, fairness, and improved outcomes for all individuals, regardless of gender.

"Gender Revealing Party" by Mack Male is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

In the news you may have heard of a new trend where soon-to-be parents throw a huge party to announce whether they are going to be having a boy or a girl.  These parties are referred to as "gender reveal" parties.  However, as we have been learning in this class so far, there is a major difference between sex and gender.  

What is wrong with referring to these parties as "gender reveal" parties?  What social expectations are placed on an infant as a result of such an announcement?  Why might whatever the announcement is not be accurate?

What would an actual "gender reveal" party entail?  At what age would it be appropriate to have such a party?  What social expectations would be the result of such an announcement?

Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG) is a science fiction television series that premiered in 1987 and ran for seven seasons. The series is set in the 24th century and follows the crew of the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D) as they explore the galaxy and encounter various alien species. TNG is known for its diverse cast and its emphasis on social and political issues.

As far as gender differences in TNG, the series features a number of strong female characters, including Chief Medical Officer Dr. Beverly Crusher and Ship Counselor Deanna Troi. These characters are depicted as being just as capable and competent as their male counterparts, and they are often shown in leadership roles. They are also not limited to traditional gender roles, and they are portrayed with autonomy, intelligence and agency.

The series also features a number of alien species with different gender roles and expectations. For example, in the episode "The Outcast," the crew encounters a genderless species called the J'naii, and they must grapple with the idea of a society without gender-based distinctions. This episode explores themes of gender identity, acceptance and tolerance.

In general, TNG is known for its progressive representation of gender and its emphasis on gender equality, and it is an example of how science fiction can be used to explore complex social and political issues. The series is notable for its depiction of a future where gender equality is the norm and where traditional gender roles are not limiting.

Evans, M., & Williams, C. (2012).  Gender: The key concepts.  Taylor and Francis Group.

Galliano, G. (2002). Gender: Crossing boundaries.   Thomson Wadsworth.

Gender concepts. (2022, March 8). In Vikispedia. https://vikaspedia.in/social-welfare/women-and-child-development/women-development-1/gender-concepts

James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology.

Jhpiego. (n.d.). Gender concepts and definitions. Retrieved March 8, 2022 from https://gender.jhpiego.org/analysistoolkit/gender-concepts-and-definitions/

Pilcher, J., & Whelehan, I. (2004).  Fifty key concepts in gender studies. Thousand Oaks, CA:  Sage Publications Inc.

Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 699–727. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.5.699